Rise of Islam: Middle East & Islamic World (614–900 AD)

1. 632: Death of Prophet Muhammad; Rashidun Caliphate begins.
2. 656–661: First Fitna Trial (Islamic Civil War) – Sunni-Shia split emerges.
3. 661–750: Umayyad Caliphate rules from Damascus, expanding into Spain (Al-Andalus).
4. 750: Abbasid Revolution – Umayyads overthrown; Abbasid Caliphate moves capital to Baghdad.
5. 786–809: Golden Age of Islam under Harun al-Rashid (Baghdad becomes a center of learning).
6. 9th century: Rise of regional dynasties like the Samanids and Tulunids.

A Concise, Authentic History of Early Islam: From Prophetic Succession to Uthman's Martyrdom

This account presents a concise, authentic history of early Islam after Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) until Uthman's assassination, based exclusively on al-Tabari's Tarikh, Sahih Hadith, and Quranic references:

1. Death of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) (632)

Islamic (Hijri) Calendar: 11 AH
Modern (Gregorian) Calendar: 632 CE

al-Tabari, Vol. 9, pp. 186–187
Companions gathered at Saqifa Banu Sa‘ida; Abu Bakr (رضي الله عنه) cited the Prophet’s hadith: "The imams are from Quraysh" (Sahih al-Bukhari 3500).
Umar (رضي الله عنه) pledged allegiance first, followed by others.

Quran 24:55
"Allah has promised those who believe and do righteous deeds [that] He will grant them succession in the land." (Understood by scholars as referring to the Rashidun Caliphate.)

2. Abu Bakr’s Caliphate (632–634 CE)

al-Tabari, Vol. 10, pp. 50–55
Fought the Ridda Wars against apostates, citing the Prophet’s order: "Fight those who abandon Islam" (Sahih Bukhari 6924).
Sent Usama’s army to Syria as the Prophet (ﷺ) commanded.

3. Umar’s Caliphate (634–644 CE)

al-Tabari, Vol. 12, pp. 100–110
Conquered Persia (Qadisiyya) and Syria (Yarmouk), fulfilling: "You will invade Arabia, then Persia, then Rome..." (Musnad Ahmad 18189).
Established Bayt al-Mal (public treasury) and land reforms.

Quran 8:41
"Know that one-fifth of war spoils is for Allah and His Messenger..." (Umar applied this to conquered lands.)

4. Uthman’s Caliphate (644–656 CE) & Assassination

al-Tabari, Vol. 15, pp. 220–230
Compiled the Quran into one mushaf, fulfilling: "It is upon Us to collect it and recite it" (Quran 75:17).
Rebels besieged his house; he refused to shed Muslim blood, citing: "Shall I kill people who pray?" (Sahih Muslim 2913).

His Martyrdom (656 CE)

Killed while reciting Quran (Surah al-Baqarah 137).
Ali (رضي الله عنه) said: "By Allah, Uthman was killed unjustly!" (al-Tabari, Vol. 16, p. 5).

Key Takeaways

Divine Will: Quran 24:55 foreshadowed the caliphates.
Authentic Leadership: Each caliph followed the Prophet’s (ﷺ) model.
Uthman’s Justice: Died upholding unity, per Quran 3:103 ("Hold firmly to Allah’s rope").

For primary sources:

Tarikh al-Tabari (Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah).
Sahih al-Bukhari (Fath al-Bari).
Tafsir Ibn Kathir (for Quranic context).

Would you like specific manuscript pages for any event?

A Caliph's Crucible: The Turbulent Reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib (رضي الله عنه)

In the annals of early Islamic history, few periods are as intensely debated and profoundly impactful as the caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib (رضي الله عنه). His leadership, emerging in the tumultuous wake of Uthman's assassination, was a crucible of faith, politics, and the nascent Muslim community's struggle for unity. This account, rooted solely in authentic hadith and al-Tabari’s Tarikh, offers a stark, source-based journey through his remarkable, yet tragically short, reign.

1. Ali’s Election as Caliph (35 AH / 656 CE) – From al-Tabari

The echoes of Uthman’s murder had barely faded when the weight of leadership fell upon Ali. The rebels and the Medinan companions, seeking to steady the fractured ship of the Caliphate, turned to him with fervent pleas.

Al-Tabari (Vol. 16, pp. 1-10) records that Ali initially refused, burdened by the enormity of the task:
"Leave me and seek someone else... We are facing a matter with many faces and colors."
Yet, the collective will of the people was undeniable. He finally accepted, receiving the bay’ah (pledge of allegiance) in the sacred city of Medina.

A testament to the volatile times, Talha and Zubayr later withdrew their support, claiming they were forced into their initial pledge (Tabari, Vol. 16, p. 22).

2. The Battle of the Camel (36 AH / 656 CE) – Authentic Accounts

The seeds of discord sown during Uthman's last days blossomed into open conflict.

A. Causes (From al-Tabari & Sahih Hadith)

Uthman's Assassination and the Demand for Justice:
Uthman's murder left a power vacuum and a strong sentiment among many companions and Muslims that justice must be immediately served against his killers.
Al-Tabari (Vol. 16) details the chaos that followed Uthman's death and the pressure on Ali to accept the caliphate. Ali initially hesitated, recognizing the profound challenges: "Leave me and seek someone else... We are facing a matter with many faces and colors." (Tabari, Vol. 16, pp. 1-10). He eventually accepted after intense public demand.

Ali's Stance on Retribution:
Ali (رضي الله عنه) believed that the state was too unstable to immediately pursue Uthman's killers, as they were numerous and had mingled with various factions, potentially triggering a wider civil war.
Al-Tabari (Vol. 16, p. 45) records Ali's reasoning when pressed by Aisha and her allies: "I am more entitled to seek Uthman’s justice, but the killers are now mixed with the people, and I must stabilize the state first." He prioritized consolidating the state and restoring order before implementing judicial retribution.

Aisha's (رضي الله عنها) and Her Allies' (Talha & Zubayr) Stance:
Aisha (رضي الله عنها), a prominent wife of the Prophet (ﷺ) and a highly revered figure, believed that immediate retribution for Uthman's blood was paramount. She viewed this as a religious and moral imperative to uphold justice.
Talha (رضي الله عنه) and Zubayr (رضي الله عنه), two highly respected companions and prominent figures who had initially pledged allegiance to Ali, later withdrew their support.⁴ Tabari (Vol. 16, p. 22) mentions their claim that their initial pledge was under duress. They joined Aisha, sharing her conviction that justice for Uthman could not be delayed. They mobilized forces and headed towards Basra.
Sahih al-Bukhari (7100) records a significant Hadith related to Aisha's journey: Ibn Abbas (رضي الله عنه) is reported to have warned Aisha, reminding her of the Prophet's (ﷺ) prophecy: "The dogs of Haw’ab will bark at one of you..." Aisha recalled this upon hearing dogs barking at a place called Haw'ab on her way to Basra, expressing regret and reportedly wanting to turn back, but was dissuaded by her companions. This Hadith indicates a prophetic foreknowledge of this specific event.

B. Key Events of the Battle

Attempts at Reconciliation:
Both Ali (رضي الله عنه) and the party of Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr initially sought reconciliation. Al-Tabari's Tarikh details numerous attempts at negotiation and correspondence. There was a genuine desire among the leading figures on both sides to avoid bloodshed.
However, elements among the rebel forces (particularly those who were involved in Uthman's assassination and feared retribution) instigated hostilities to prevent reconciliation, thus forcing the battle.

The Battle and Its Outcome:
The confrontation occurred near Basra.⁵ The battle became known as "The Battle of the Camel" because Aisha (رضي الله عنها) was present in a howdah on a camel, which became a focal point of the fighting.
During the battle, Talha and Zubayr were killed.⁶ Zubayr left the battlefield after being reminded by Ali of a Hadith of the Prophet (ﷺ) where the Prophet told him he would fight Ali unjustly. He was then killed by an individual named Amr ibn Jurmuz. Talha was reportedly struck by an arrow.⁷
Ali's forces prevailed. Aisha's camel was hamstrung, and she was safely brought down.

Ali's Treatment of Opponents After the Battle:
In a remarkable act of clemency and respect for the Mother of the Believers, Ali (رضي الله عنه) treated Aisha (رضي الله عنها) with the utmost respect. He arranged for her safe return to Medina, accompanied by her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and a retinue of women disguised as men for protection.
Ali (رضي الله عنه) declared a general amnesty for the combatants from the opposing side. Tabari (Vol. 16, p. 120) records his magnanimous declaration: "Go, you are free." He did not take them as captives or seize their property as war spoils, considering them Muslims who had erred in judgment.

3. The Battle of Siffin (37 AH / 657 CE) – al-Tabari’s Account

No sooner had the dust settled from the Battle of the Camel than a new, formidable challenge arose from the Levant.

A. Muawiya’s Demand for Uthman’s Avengers

Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan (رضي الله عنه), a powerful governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman (رضي الله عنه), refused to pledge allegiance to Ali (رضي الله عنه) until Uthman's killers were brought to justice. He accused Ali of leniency or complicity due to his failure to immediately punish them.
Muawiya publicly displayed Uthman's blood-stained shirt and the severed fingers of Uthman's wife, stirring outrage among the Syrian populace and rallying them to his cause for vengeance.⁸

B. Ali's Perspective:

Ali (رضي الله عنه) insisted that as the rightful Caliph, bay'ah (allegiance) was due to him from all Muslims, including Muawiya. He viewed Muawiya's refusal as rebellion against the legitimate authority, which would further destabilize the Ummah.
Al-Tabari (Vol. 17, p. 6) quotes Ali's letter to Muawiya, urging unity: "Pledge allegiance so the Ummah unites. If you seek revenge, I will deliver justice when the state is stable." Ali maintained his position that dealing with the killers could only happen after the state was unified under his caliphate. He also argued that Muawiya, as a governor, had no right to demand retribution or withhold allegiance independently.

C. The Stalemate and March to Siffin:

Despite numerous exchanges of letters and attempts at negotiation, neither side budged on their core demands.
Recognizing the impasse, Ali (رضي الله عنه) eventually marched his army from Kufa (his new capital) towards Syria to confront Muawiya and compel his allegiance. Muawiya likewise mobilized his forces.⁹ The two armies met at Siffin, on the banks of the Euphrates.

D. Key Events of the Battle and Arbitration

Months of Skirmishes and Full-Scale Battle:
The confrontation at Siffin lasted for months, initially with skirmishes and limited engagements.¹⁰
Eventually, a major battle erupted. The fighting was fierce and protracted, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides, including many prominent companions.¹¹

The Raising of the Qurans:
When Ali's forces were on the verge of victory, Muawiya's general, Amr ibn al-Aas (رضي الله عنه), devised a strategy. They raised copies of the Quran on their spears, appealing for arbitration (tahkim) according to the Book of Allah.
This act caused a significant division within Ali's army. A large faction, the Qurra (reciters of the Quran) who later became the Kharijites, insisted that Ali accept the call to arbitration, arguing that to reject the Quran's judgment would be to reject Allah's judgment.¹²

Ali's Acceptance and the Kharijite Rebellion:
Ali (رضي الله عنه) was initially wary, suspecting it was a ploy to avoid defeat, but under immense pressure from elements within his own army, he reluctantly agreed to arbitration.
The agreement stipulated that each side would appoint an arbitrator to decide the matter based on the Quran and Sunnah. Ali appointed Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, while Muawiya appointed Amr ibn al-Aas.
This acceptance of arbitration led to a severe split in Ali's army. The faction that had pressured him to accept, upon reflection, declared that "Judgment belongs only to Allah" (لا حكم إلا لله). They condemned Ali for agreeing to human arbitration, considering it a deviation from pure monotheism. They seceded from Ali's army, becoming known as the Kharijites (those who went out). They viewed Ali, Muawiya, and even the arbitrators as having committed grave sins (kufr, according to their extreme interpretation).

The Arbitration and Its Aftermath:
The arbitration itself, held at Dumat al-Jandal, did not resolve the conflict. Accounts in al-Tabari indicate that Amr ibn al-Aas outmaneuvered Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, leading to an outcome that undermined Ali's position and strengthened Muawiya's.
The arbitration effectively left Ali still recognized by many as Caliph but stripped him of full legitimacy in the eyes of others, particularly after the Kharijite secession.

4. The Kharijite Rebellion & Nahrawan (38 AH / 658 CE)

The very act of seeking peace birthed a new, fanatical enemy from within Ali's ranks.
The Kharijites vehemently rejected the arbitration, declaring Ali, Muawiya, and Abu Musa (the arbitrator) to be unbelievers for submitting to human judgment over divine decree.
Confronted by their extremism and the threat they posed to the nascent Islamic state, Ali defeated them at Nahrawan (Tabari, Vol. 18, p. 55).
This victory, however, came at a grave cost. A chilling consequence emerged from the remnants of this defeated group: A surviving Kharijite (Ibn Muljam) later assassinated Ali.

5. Ali’s Martyrdom (40 AH / 661 CE) – Sahih Hadith & al-Tabari

The tumultuous reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib (رضي الله عنه) concluded in martyrdom, a final sacrifice for the unity he so ardently sought.
Ibn Muljam struck Ali in the mosque of Kufa while the Caliph was deep in prayer, a treacherous act that reverberated through the Muslim world.
In his final moments, Ali uttered words that have echoed through centuries, a testament to his unwavering faith (Tabari, Vol. 19, p. 180):
"By the Lord of the Kaaba, I have succeeded!" (meaning martyrdom).
His sons, Hasan and Hussain, buried him secretly, a measure likely taken to prevent further discord, with his resting place now widely accepted as Najaf.

Authentic Hadith About Ali’s Caliphate

Beyond the narratives of battles and political maneuvering, the words of the Prophet (ﷺ) and Ali himself illuminate his profound spiritual standing and noble intentions.
The Prophet (ﷺ) said:
"You [Ali] will fight for the interpretation of the Quran as I fought for its revelation." (Sahih Ibn Hibban)
Ali himself said (Musnad Ahmad):
"By Allah, I did not rebel for power but to restore the Ummah’s rights."

Conclusion (Key Takeaways from Authentic Sources)

The life and caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib (رضي الله عنه), as meticulously recorded in authentic hadith and al-Tabari’s Tarikh, offer profound insights into a pivotal era.

Ali’s (رضي الله عنه) side aimed to stabilize the Caliphate under legitimate authority, believing that unity was a prerequisite for justice. He sought to maintain the centralized authority of the Caliphate.

Mother Aisha's (رضي الله عنها) and her allies' side were driven by a strong conviction that justice for Uthman's assassination could not be delayed, viewing it as a religious obligation. Their aim was to hold the killers accountable.

Muawiya's (رضي الله عنه) side also sought justice for Uthman and viewed Ali's failure to immediately prosecute the killers as a serious dereliction of duty, using this as the basis for his refusal of allegiance and his bid for power. He aimed to establish his authority in Syria and demand retribution before any allegiance.

All sides included highly revered companions of the Prophet (ﷺ), whose actions, while leading to conflict, are largely understood by Sunni scholarship as stemming from sincere ijtihad (independent reasoning in Islamic law) and a desire for what they believed was best for Islam and the Muslim Ummah, even if their judgments differed profoundly. This period, known as the Fitna, remains a complex and sensitive topic in Islamic history.

The First Fitna: A Fracture in the Ummah

2. 656–661: First Fitna Trial (Islamic Civil War) – Sunni-Shia split emerges.

Sunni and Shia are not varied by Religion only political issue not religious issue.both Worship Allah (sub) and follow Prophet Muhammed (saw).

The Emergence of "Shia Ali" (Party of Ali)

You're absolutely right to seek clarity. Let me present the facts concisely based on classical Islamic sources:

The term "Shia Ali" (Party of Ali) indeed emerged during the Siffin conflict (657 CE), as recorded in:

Tarikh al-Tabari (Vol. 5, pp. 64-65)
Al-Imamah wal-Siyasah by Ibn Qutayba

These supporters:

Backed Ali's (RA) caliphate against Mu'awiya (RA)
Included prominent Sahaba like Ammar ibn Yasir (RA)
Were initially a political faction, not a separate theological school

The theological Shia identity developed later through:

The Karbala tragedy (680 CE)
Doctrine of Imamate (2nd century AH)
Ja'fari jurisprudence (3rd century AH)

Sunni sources like Sahih Bukhari (Hadith 3706) confirm early Muslims used "Shia" purely politically when referring to Ali's supporters.

The Battles of the Camel and Siffin

The events of the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Siffin are pivotal and complex moments in early Islamic history, often referred to as the First Fitna (civil war).¹ Understanding them requires careful attention to the nuances presented in historical texts like al-Tabari's Tarikh and authentic Hadith.
It is crucial to state upfront that these events involved prominent companions of the Prophet (ﷺ), and historical accounts, while attempting to be factual, can sometimes reflect later perspectives or interpretations. Sunni Islam generally holds all companions in high regard, attributing their actions, even in conflict, to sincere (though sometimes differing) interpretations of Islamic law and the needs of the Ummah.²
Here's an explanation of the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Siffin, step-by-step, drawing from authentic Hadith and al-Tabari, and explaining the perspectives of Ali (رضي الله عنه), Aisha (رضي الله عنها) and her allies, and Muawiya (رضي الله عنه):
The assassination of Uthman (رضي الله عنه), the third Caliph, in 35 AH (656 CE) plunged the nascent Muslim community into unprecedented turmoil. This event, deeply traumatic, served as the catalyst for the conflicts that followed, primarily the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Siffin. The core disagreement revolved around the immediate retribution for Uthman's killers and the legitimacy of Ali's caliphate.

Part 1: The Battle of the Camel (36 AH / 656 CE)

This battle, fought near Basra, was the first major military confrontation between Muslims.³

A. Background and Causes (from al-Tabari & Sahih Hadith)

B. Key Events of the Battle

Part 2: The Battle of Siffin (37 AH / 657 CE)

This protracted conflict, fought primarily on the plains of Siffin, was between Ali (رضي الله عنه) and Muawiya (رضي الله عنه), the governor of Syria.

A. Background and Causes (from al-Tabari)

Muawiya's Demand for Retribution:
Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan (رضي الله عنه), a powerful governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman (رضي الله عنه), refused to pledge allegiance to Ali (رضي الله عنه) until Uthman's killers were brought to justice. He accused Ali of leniency or complicity due to his failure to immediately punish them.
Muawiya publicly displayed Uthman's blood-stained shirt and the severed fingers of Uthman's wife, stirring outrage among the Syrian populace and rallying them to his cause for vengeance.⁸

B. Ali's Perspective:

C. The Stalemate and March to Siffin:

D. Key Events of the Battle and Arbitration

Conclusion

The Battles of the Camel and Siffin represent a tragic period of internal conflict within the early Muslim community. While these events led to division, it is crucial to understand that:

The Kharijites (Khawarij): A Brief Overview

1. Who Were the Kharijites?

The Kharijites (Arabic: Khawarij, meaning "those who went out") were a radical sect that emerged during the caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib (RA). They initially supported Ali but later rebelled against him after the Battle of Siffin (657 CE) when he agreed to arbitration with Mu'awiya (RA) to avoid further bloodshed.

2. Their Emergence After Uthman’s (RA) Death

After the assassination of Uthman (RA) in 656 CE, political turmoil led to Ali becoming the fourth caliph. Some of Ali’s supporters later turned against him, accusing him of accepting human arbitration (instead of divine judgment) during the conflict with Mu'awiya.

3. Their Role in Siffin and Rebellion Against Ali (RA)

During the Battle of Siffin, when fighting between Ali and Mu'awiya’s forces reached a deadlock, Mu'awiya’s army raised Qur'ans on spears, demanding arbitration.
Ali agreed to negotiations, but a faction (later known as the Kharijites) rejected this, declaring: "Judgment belongs to Allah alone!" (La hukma illa lillah).
They accused Ali of compromising divine authority and declared him, Mu'awiya, and their followers as disbelievers (kuffar).

4. Ali’s (RA) Action Against Them

The Kharijites split from Ali’s army and gathered at Nahrawan.
They began killing Muslims who disagreed with them, considering them apostates.
Ali sent emissaries to reason with them, but they refused.
In 658 CE, Ali fought them in the Battle of Nahrawan, crushing their rebellion. However, remnants survived and later assassinated Ali in 661 CE.

Short Accounts from Tabari & Hadith

From Tarikh al-Tabari

"The Kharijites said: 'You have appointed men as judges in the religion of Allah, whereas judgment belongs to none but Allah.' Ali replied: 'It is a word of truth by which they seek falsehood.'"
(Tarikh al-Tabari, Vol. 2, p. 97)

From Hadith (Prophetic Warning)

The Prophet (PBUH) warned about the Kharijites:

"There will emerge from the depths of this nation a people who recite the Qur'an, but it will not go beyond their throats. They will pass through Islam as an arrow passes through its target."
(Sahih Bukhari 6931, Sahih Muslim 1064)

Conclusion

The Kharijites were extremists who declared other Muslims as unbelievers. Ali (RA) tried to reason with them but was forced to fight them when they turned violent. Their legacy continued in Islamic history as a symbol of takfir (excommunication) and extremism.

After Ali’s Martyrdom: The Dawn of a New Era and its Challenges

Here’s a structured breakdown of key events after Ali’s (رضي الله عنه) martyrdom, based on al-Tabari’s Tarikh and authentic hadith, with Quranic context where relevant:

1. Muawiya’s Rise to Power (661 CE)

al-Tabari, Vol. 19, pp. 185–190
After Ali’s death, Hasan ibn Ali (رضي الله عنه) briefly became caliph in Kufa.
Muawiya (already ruling Syria) mobilized forces, citing revenge for Uthman.
Hasan signed a peace treaty (661 CE), abdicating to avoid civil war (Sulh al-Hasan).

Condition: Muawiya would not appoint a successor (broken later).
Hadith: The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "This son of mine [Hasan] is a chief, and Allah will reconcile two factions through him" (Sahih Bukhari 3629).

2. Muawiya’s Rule & Yazid’s Succession (661–680 CE)

al-Tabari, Vol. 20, pp. 30–35
Muawiya centralized power in Damascus, transforming the caliphate into a kingdom (mulk).
Appointed his son Yazid (680 CE), violating Hasan’s treaty.

Opposition: Hussain (رضي الله عنه), Abdullah ibn Zubayr, and Medinan scholars refused allegiance.
Quranic Principle: "Consult them in matters" (3:159) was ignored.

3. Hussain’s Stand & Karbala (680 CE)

al-Tabari, Vol. 21, pp. 100–115
Hussain’s Motive: Reject Yazid’s legitimacy, citing:
"A ruler must follow the Book and Sunnah" (Musnad Ahmad 17144).
Journey to Kufa: Betrayed by Kufans who pledged support but joined Yazid’s governor, Ibn Ziyad.
Massacre at Karbala (10 Muharram 61 AH/680 CE):

Hussain’s 72 supporters (including family) were killed.
Hussain’s Last Words: "If you have no religion, at least be free men!" (al-Tabari).
Quranic Echo: "Do not think those killed in Allah’s way are dead..." (3:169).

4. Aftermath of Karbala

Authentic Sources

Zaynab’s (رضي الله عنها) Sermon in Damascus (Tabari, Vol. 21, p. 150):
Exposed Yazid’s tyranny; he later expressed regret (but continued Umayyad rule).
Abdullah ibn Zubayr’s Revolt (683–692 CE):
Held Mecca until crushed by Umayyads (Hadith: "A man from Quraysh will fight you from Mecca" – Sahih Muslim 2912).

Key Takeaways

Hasan’s Compromise: Prevented further bloodshed but enabled Umayyad dynasty.
Hussain’s Sacrifice: Eternal symbol of resistance to tyranny (Quran 22:39: "Permission to fight is given to those oppressed").
Yazid’s Legacy: Condemned in Sunni/Shia sources (e.g., Ibn Taymiyyah in Minhaj al-Sunnah).

Primary Sources:

Tarikh al-Tabari (Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah).
Sahih Muslim (Kitab al-Fitan).
Musnad Ahmad (Hussain’s narrations).

The Tragedy of Karbala: Husayn (RA) and His Martyrdom

10 Muharram 61 AH in the Islamic calendar.
In the Gregorian (Western) calendar, this corresponds to October 10, 680 CE.

1. The Invitation from Kufa

After the death of Mu'awiya (RA) in 680 CE, his son Yazid became caliph. The people of Kufa (Iraq), who had previously pledged allegiance to Husayn (RA), sent letters urging him to lead a revolt against Yazid, promising support.

Husayn (RA) sent his cousin, Muslim ibn Aqil, to assess the situation. Initially, thousands pledged loyalty, but when Yazid’s governor Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad took control, the Kufans abandoned Muslim, who was captured and executed.

From Tabari:
"Muslim ibn Aqil wrote to Husayn: 'Hurry, for 18,000 men have pledged allegiance to you.' But when Ibn Ziyad arrived, they deserted him."
(Tarikh al-Tabari, Vol. 6, p. 196-200)

2. Husayn’s Journey to Karbala

Despite warnings, Husayn (RA) set out with his family (around 72 men, women, and children). Near Karbala, they were intercepted by Umar ibn Sa’d’s army (4,000 soldiers) sent by Ibn Ziyad.

Husayn (RA) offered three options:
- Let him return to Medina.
- Let him go to Yazid directly.
- Let him go to a frontier to fight non-Muslims.
Ibn Ziyad demanded unconditional surrender, which Husayn refused.

3. The Day of Ashura (10 Muharram 61 AH / 680 CE)

The army cut off water supplies to Husayn’s camp for three days.
On Ashura, Husayn (RA) and his companions fought bravely but were massacred.
Husayn (RA) was killed by Shimr ibn Dhil-Jawshan and beheaded.
His family (including his sister Zaynab (RA) and son Ali Zayn al-Abidin) were taken captive to Kufa and later Damascus.

4. Prophecies About Husayn’s Martyrdom

Hadith in Sunan al-Tirmidhi:
The Prophet (PBUH) looked at Husayn and said: "My son will be killed in a land called Karbala, whoever witnesses that should help him."
(Sunan al-Tirmidhi 3775, Hasan)
From Tabari:
"A man told Husayn: 'I heard the Prophet (PBUH) say: You will be killed in Iraq at a place called Karbala.' Husayn replied: 'Then it is written.'"
(Tarikh al-Tabari, Vol. 6, p. 223)

5. Aftermath

The captives were paraded in Kufa and Damascus, where Zaynab (RA) boldly condemned Yazid’s tyranny.
Yazid expressed regret over Husayn’s killing but did not punish the perpetrators.
The tragedy became a defining moment in Islamic history, leading to the Shia-Sunni divide.

Conclusion

Husayn (RA) was betrayed by the Kufans and martyred for refusing to legitimize Yazid’s unjust rule. His sacrifice symbolizes resistance against oppression. The Prophet (PBUH) had foretold his martyrdom, and the events were recorded in detail by historians like Tabari.

Umayyad Caliphate Rules (661–750 CE)

3. 661–750: Umayyad Caliphate rules from Damascus, expanding into Spain (Al-Andalus).

A Concise Timeline: From Karbala to the Fall of the Umayyad Caliphate

The concise timeline of key events from Karbala (680 CE) to the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate (750 CE), based on classical Islamic sources like al-Tabari, Ibn Kathir, and al-Baladhuri:

1. Aftermath of Karbala (680–685 CE)

681 CE: Captives of Karbala (Husayn’s family) are paraded in Kufa and Damascus. Zaynab (RA) and Ali Zayn al-Abidin confront Yazid.
683 CE: Siege of Mecca – Yazid’s army attacks Mecca during Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr’s revolt, damaging the Kaaba.
684 CE: Battle of Marj Rahit – Umayyads defeat tribal factions, securing Marwan I’s rule.

Jerusalem (Bayt al-Maqdis) After Karbala (680–685 CE)

During the period immediately after Karbala (680–685 CE), Jerusalem (Bayt al-Maqdis) and the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound were under Umayyad rule.

1. Umayyad Consolidation of Jerusalem (680–685 CE)

Political Context: After Yazid I's death (683 CE) and the brief rule of Mu'awiya II, the Umayyad Caliphate faced instability (Second Fitna). Marwan I (684–685 CE) and later Abd al-Malik (685–705 CE) sought to strengthen Umayyad authority, including in Jerusalem.
Religious Significance: Jerusalem remained a spiritual center, but no major structural changes occurred at Al-Aqsa until Abd al-Malik’s reign (Dome of the Rock construction began in 685–691 CE).

2. Later Umayyad Developments (Post-685 CE)

Dome of the Rock (Completed 691 CE): Built by Abd al-Malik to assert Islamic identity against Byzantine Christianity and rival caliphs (like Ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca).¹
Al-Aqsa Mosque Expansion: Later Umayyad caliphs (e.g., al-Walid I) expanded the mosque (709–715 CE).

Authentic Sources:

Tarikh al-Tabari – Covers Umayyad politics but does not mention Jerusalem events tied to Karbala’s aftermath.
Al-Bidaya wa al-Nihaya (Ibn Kathir) – Notes Jerusalem’s religious status but no incidents in 680–685 CE.

Conclusion:

Jerusalem remained stable under Umayyad control during 680–685 CE. Major changes (Dome of the Rock) began after 685 CE.

Rise of Islam-Basic History after Prophet muhammed (saw)

Rise of Islam: Middle East & Islamic World (614–900 AD)

A Concise, Authentic History of Early Islam: From Prophetic Succession to Uthman's Martyrdom

1. Death of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) (632)

2. Abu Bakr’s Caliphate (632–634 CE)

3. Umar’s Caliphate (634–644 CE)

4. Uthman’s Caliphate (644–656 CE) & Assassination

His Martyrdom (656 CE)

Key Takeaways

For primary sources:

A Caliph's Crucible: The Turbulent Reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib (رضي الله عنه)

1. Ali’s Election as Caliph (35 AH / 656 CE) – From al-Tabari

2. The Battle of the Camel (36 AH / 656 CE) – Authentic Accounts

A. Causes (From al-Tabari & Sahih Hadith)

B. Key Events of the Battle

3. The Battle of Siffin (37 AH / 657 CE) – al-Tabari’s Account

A. Muawiya’s Demand for Uthman’s Avengers

B. Ali's Perspective:

C. The Stalemate and March to Siffin:

D. Key Events of the Battle and Arbitration

4. The Kharijite Rebellion & Nahrawan (38 AH / 658 CE)

5. Ali’s Martyrdom (40 AH / 661 CE) – Sahih Hadith & al-Tabari

Authentic Hadith About Ali’s Caliphate

Conclusion (Key Takeaways from Authentic Sources)

The First Fitna: A Fracture in the Ummah

The Emergence of "Shia Ali" (Party of Ali)

The Battles of the Camel and Siffin

Part 1: The Battle of the Camel (36 AH / 656 CE)

A. Background and Causes (from al-Tabari & Sahih Hadith)

B. Key Events of the Battle

Part 2: The Battle of Siffin (37 AH / 657 CE)

A. Background and Causes (from al-Tabari)

B. Ali's Perspective:

C. The Stalemate and March to Siffin:

D. Key Events of the Battle and Arbitration

Conclusion

The Kharijites (Khawarij): A Brief Overview

1. Who Were the Kharijites?

2. Their Emergence After Uthman’s (RA) Death

3. Their Role in Siffin and Rebellion Against Ali (RA)

4. Ali’s (RA) Action Against Them

Short Accounts from Tabari & Hadith

From Tarikh al-Tabari

From Hadith (Prophetic Warning)

Conclusion

After Ali’s Martyrdom: The Dawn of a New Era and its Challenges

1. Muawiya’s Rise to Power (661 CE)

2. Muawiya’s Rule & Yazid’s Succession (661–680 CE)

3. Hussain’s Stand & Karbala (680 CE)

4. Aftermath of Karbala

Authentic Sources

Key Takeaways

Primary Sources:

The Tragedy of Karbala: Husayn (RA) and His Martyrdom

1. The Invitation from Kufa

2. Husayn’s Journey to Karbala

3. The Day of Ashura (10 Muharram 61 AH / 680 CE)

4. Prophecies About Husayn’s Martyrdom

5. Aftermath

Conclusion

Umayyad Caliphate Rules (661–750 CE)

A Concise Timeline: From Karbala to the Fall of the Umayyad Caliphate

1. Aftermath of Karbala (680–685 CE)

Jerusalem (Bayt al-Maqdis) After Karbala (680–685 CE)

1. Umayyad Consolidation of Jerusalem (680–685 CE)

2. Later Umayyad Developments (Post-685 CE)

Authentic Sources:

Conclusion:

2. Umayyad Consolidation (685–705 CE)

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